Fast absolute-reflectance method for the determination of tear film lipid layer thickness

ABSTRACT

A method for determining reflectivity of a tear film lipid layer of a patient and recommending a course of treatment based on the same. The method includes the steps of: measuring a tear film aqueous plus lipid layer relative reflectance spectrum using a wavelength-dependent optical interferometer; converting the measured tear film aqueous plus lipid layer relative reflectance spectrum to a calculated absolute reflectance spectrum; comparing the calculated absolute reflectance spectrum to a theoretical absolute lipid reflectance spectrum to determine a tear film lipid layer thickness; and determining a reflectivity value for the tear film lipid layer thickness at a first wavelength of light corresponding to ultraviolet, violet, or blue light.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a divisional of and claims priority to U.S.patent application Ser. No. 14/831,678, filed Aug. 20, 2015, which is acontinuation-in-part and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser.No. 14/298,176, filed Jun. 6, 2014 and Ser. No. 14/298,036, filed Jun.6, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,456,741), which are incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

BACKGROUND

The present invention relates to determination of tear film lipid layerthickness.

Dry eye disease is most often caused by excessive tear film evaporation,leading to hyperosmolarity of the tear film, resulting in ocular surfaceinflammation and exacerbation of the problem. Excessive tear filmevaporation is often caused by an abnormal tear film lipid layer, eitherin amount or in quality. The amount or quality of tear film lipid canmanifest itself in changes in thickness of the lipid layer. Generally, athicker lipid layer is associated with a normal tear film, whereas theopposite is often the case for dry eye. Present clinical measurements ofthe tear film lipid layer are for the most part qualitative orsemi-quantitative in nature. Korb, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,591,033 and8,585,204, disclose a quantitative method for measuring the thickness ofthe tear film lipid layer. However, this method does not measure thelipid layer over the central cornea where tear film thinning and breakupdue to evaporation is maximal and where it is believed a betterdiagnosis of dry eye can be obtained. Huth, in U.S. Pat. No. 8,602,557B2 (incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) also disclose aquantitative method for measuring the thickness of the tear film lipidlayer as part of a method to simultaneously measure the tear filmaqueous layer and the corneal surface refractive index. However, thismethod requires as long as 475 seconds to complete the calculations fora single tear film spectrum.

SUMMARY

Thus, it is the object of the present invention to overcome thelimitations of the prior art, and to increase the sensitivity, accuracyand precision of the measurement of the tear film lipid layer. Fast,accurate and precise lipid layer thickness-determination methods arealso needed for the quantitative evaluation of the effects of noveldual-function lipid-supplementation tear formulas on the tear film lipidlayer. Such methods are also needed to evaluate the effects of other eyedrops, ophthalmic dry eye drugs and MPS solutions, and contact lenses onthe tear film lipid layer.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for determiningreflectivity of a tear film lipid layer of a patient. The methodincludes the steps of: measuring a tear film aqueous plus lipid layerrelative reflectance spectrum using a wavelength-dependent opticalinterferometer; converting the measured tear film aqueous plus lipidlayer relative reflectance spectrum to a calculated absolute reflectancespectrum; comparing the calculated absolute reflectance spectrum to atheoretical absolute lipid reflectance spectrum to determine a tear filmlipid layer thickness; and determining a reflectivity value for the tearfilm lipid layer thickness at a first wavelength of light correspondingto ultraviolet, violet, or blue light.

In another embodiment the invention provides a system for determiningreflectivity of a tear film lipid layer of a patient. The systemincludes a wavelength-dependent optical interferometer and a controllerin communication with the interferometer. The controller is configuredto measure a tear film aqueous plus lipid layer relative reflectancespectrum using the interferometer, convert the measured tear filmaqueous plus lipid layer relative reflectance spectrum to a calculatedabsolute reflectance spectrum, compare the calculated absolutereflectance spectrum to a theoretical absolute lipid reflectancespectrum to determine a tear film lipid layer thickness, and determine areflectivity value for the tear film lipid layer thickness at a firstwavelength of light corresponding to ultraviolet or blue light.

In yet another embodiment the invention provides a method for selectingan intraocular lens for a patient. The method includes the steps of:determining a tear film lipid layer thickness for the patient;determining a reflectivity value for the tear film lipid layer thicknessat a first wavelength of light corresponding to ultraviolet, violet, orblue light; and identifying an intraocular lens for attenuating orblocking at least one wavelength of light corresponding to ultraviolet,violet, or blue light.

In still another embodiment, the invention provides a method ofdetermining tear film lipid layer thickness. The method includes thesteps of: measuring a tear film aqueous plus lipid layer relativereflectance spectrum using a wavelength-dependent opticalinterferometer; converting the measured tear film aqueous plus lipidlayer relative reflectance spectrum to a calculated absolute reflectancespectrum; iteratively comparing the calculated absolute reflectancespectrum to a plurality of theoretical absolute reflectance lipidspectra to generate a plurality of tear film lipid layer thicknessestimates; determining a standard error for the plurality of tear filmlipid layer thickness estimates; and identifying a correct lipid layerthickness based on the standard error.

Other aspects of the invention will become apparent by consideration ofthe detailed description and accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows absolute reflectance for a 200 nm tear lipid film layermeasured in a wavelength range of 575 nm to 1075 nm.

FIG. 2 shows calculated absolute reflectance spectra for lipid layersthicknesses in a range of 0-140 nm.

FIG. 3 shows an unmodified tear film lipid spectrum obtained using aninterferometer.

FIG. 4 shows absolute reflectance spectra for SiO₂ layers havingthicknesses from 0-188.6 nm.

FIG. 5 shows the results of converting measured relative SiO₂ spectra tocalculated absolute reflectance spectra, where each absolute reflectancespectrum obtained from measured data is compared to an equivalentcalculated theoretical spectrum.

FIG. 6 shows the comparison between a calculated theoretical spectrumfor a 48.26 nm SiO2 thin film standard compared to calculated absolutereflectance spectra obtained by converting measurements of the relativereflectance spectra for the 48.26 nm SiO₂ thin film standard which weremeasured relative to various reference materials, including a flatsilicon wafer, a flat BK7 glass plate, and a curved BK7 glass lenshaving an identical radius of curvature as the human cornea, i.e. 7.75mm.

FIG. 7 shows a standard curve comparing the actual thickness (in nm) ofthe SiO2 thin film standards to the thickness determined using themethods disclosed herein.

FIG. 8 shows a theoretical spectrum (dashed line, - - - ) vs. b-termfitted spectrum (light grey line, overlapping dashed line) and spectrumwithout the b-term fit (black line).

FIGS. 9 and 10 show calculated absolute reflectance spectra for the MgF₂coating on the convex (FIG. 9) and the flat (FIG. 10) faces of a coatedBK7 lens, both compared to a calculated theoretical spectrum for theMgF₂ coating.

FIG. 11 shows calculated absolute reflectance spectra for tear filmlipid spectra compared to calculated theoretical spectra.

FIG. 12 shows thicknesses of the lipid (diamonds) vs. aqueous (squares)tear film layers during blinking (downward spikes in lipid thicknessmeasurements) of the subject's eyelids.

FIG. 13 shows tear film lipid layer reflectance vs. wavelength forvarying tear film lipid layer thicknesses (in nm).

FIG. 14 shows the relationship between tear film lipid layer thicknessand reflectance at UV-B (305 nm) and blue (410 nm) wavelengths, derivedfrom the data in FIG. 13.

FIG. 15 shows the absolute calculated reflectance spectrum (solid greyline) compared to the theoretical reflectance spectrum (dashed lines)for a lipid thickness of 26.77 nm.

FIG. 16 shows the absolute calculated reflectance spectrum (solid greyline) compared to the theoretical reflectance spectrum (dashed lines)for a lipid thickness of 5.98 nm.

FIG. 17 shows the standard error associated with the lipid layerthicknesses of 50 tear film spectra is plotted against the differencebetween the theoretical reflectance and the absolute calculatedreflectance (denoted as Delta R) at 625 nm.

FIG. 18 shows the standard error associated with the lipid layerthicknesses of 50 tear film spectra is plotted against the differencebetween the theoretical reflectance and the absolute calculatedreflectance (denoted as Delta R) at 825 nm.

FIG. 19 shows the standard error associated with the lipid layerthicknesses of 50 tear film spectra is plotted against the differencebetween the theoretical reflectance and the absolute calculatedreflectance (denoted as Delta R) at 1000 nm.

FIG. 20 shows the lipid-only reflectance spectrum (dashed lines) graphedwith the original measured reflectance spectrum (solid gray line).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before any embodiments of the invention are explained in detail, it isto be understood that the invention is not limited in its application tothe details of construction and the arrangement of components set forthin the following description or illustrated in the following drawings.The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced orof being carried out in various ways.

Human tear film lipid layer thickness is believed to be between 20-200nm. Central corneal tear film lipid layer thickness rarely exceeds about120 nm, however, and also can be less than 20 nm in thickness. Normalwavelength-dependent optical interferometric methods for thedetermination of thin film thickness, based upon the analysis of theincreasing number of cosine-function spectral oscillations withthickness, are unsuitable for this range. This is so because even at 200nm thickness, only half an oscillation is visible within the 575-1075 nmspectral wavelength range of the typical optical interferometer (FIG.1).

Accordingly, the answer to this problem is to base the thicknesses uponabsolute optical reflectivity, also illustrated in FIG. 1, whereabsolute reflectivity of a 200 nm lipid layer is 0.02=2% at 575 nm.Thus, one needs to compare the absolute reflectivity spectrum of a tearlipid layer to a standard reflectivity spectrum such as seen in FIG. 1.The approach to achieving this is disclosed herein.

Interferometry measurements are typically determined as relative percentlight reflection values, where the measurements from a subject's tearfilm and cornea are expressed relative to measurements obtained from areference material (e.g. a particular glass material having a radius ofcurvature comparable to that of a cornea, e.g. ranging from 7-9 mm, inparticular 7.75 mm). The ratio of the light reflectance from thesubject's tear film and cornea, R(λ) sample, to the light reflectancefrom the reference, R(λ) reference, is multiplied by 100 by typicalspectrometer and CCD detector software, so that the final relative lightreflection values are expressed as percentages; the percentage valuesare determined for a range of wavelengths to obtain a spectrum. Thus,the y-axis of a measured spectrum corresponds to 100×R(λ) sample/R(λ)reference.

As an initial step in the development of the methods of the presentinvention, the theoretical absolute spectra for lipid layers of variousthicknesses were calculated. Given that these theoretical absolutespectra have similar shapes or slopes to one another, but differentabsolute optical reflectivity at different wavelengths, correlating thetheoretical absolute spectra with observed spectra requires determiningthe absolute reflectance spectrum from the measured data and correlatingthe absolute spectra with the theoretical spectra. Experimentation isrequired, however, to account for discrepancies between theoreticalpredicted spectra and actual measured spectra. Lipid layer standards ofknown thicknesses are not available and so it is not possible to performcalibrations using lipids. Instead, a series of calibrations wasperformed using commercially-available standards having layers ofsilicon dioxide of known thicknesses, comparable to thicknesses of tearfilm lipid layers. The measured spectra for the silicon dioxidestandards were compared to the predicted theoretical absolute spectrafor silicon dioxide layers of the same thicknesses and a correctionalgorithm was produced which can be used to obtain the absolutereflectance values for measured tear film lipid layers. The correctionalgorithm accounts for changes in light reflection arising from thegeometry of a curved reference lens or from non-orthogonal placement ofa flat reference surface with respect to incident light and fromout-of-focus light reflection.

In various embodiments, the disclosed methods are modifications of aprocedure for calculation of absolute reflectance of the presumed tearstructure, involving an air interface with a single lipid layeroverlying an aqueous layer.

In the aforementioned procedure, n₀, n₁, and n₂ are the refractiveindices of the air, lipid layer, and aqueous layer, respectively, forwhich fixed values of n₀=1, n₁=1.48, and n₂=1.33 have been used. In oneembodiment of the present invention, the respective complex refractiveindices are used for n₁ and n₂, each of which changes with wavelength.

The Fresnel indices of reflection r₁ and r₂ for the air-lipid andlipid-aqueous interfaces are, respectively:r ₁=(n ₀ −n ₁)/(n ₀ +n ₁) and r ₂=(n ₁ −n ₂)/(n ₁ +n ₂)

Since energy is proportional to the square of amplitude, R(λ)=R×R*=|R²|,where R* is the conjugate complex numbers of R. Thus, from Euler'sequation:R(λ)=(r ₁ ² +r ₂ ²+2r ₁ r ₂ cos 2δ₁)/(1+r ₁ ² r ₂ ²+2r ₁ r ₂ cos2δ₁)=1−(8n ₀ n ₁ ² n ₂)/((n ₀ ² +n ₁ ²)(n ₁ ² +n ₂ ²)+4n ₀ n ₁ ² n ₂+(n₀ ² −n ₁ ²)(n ₁ ² −n ₂ ²)cos 2δ₁)

where a phase difference between two waves r₁ and r₂, is 2δ₁ and2δ₁=(4π/λ)n ₁ d cos φ₁

where φ₁ is the angle of refraction of the incident light upon the lipidlayer,

which=9.369° for the wavelength-dependent optical interferometer used inthe methods of the present invention, thus cos φ₁=0.986659.

The complex refractive indices for n₁ (lipid) and n₂ (aqueous) are used:n₁=nd=y=sqrt(1+(((−851.03)*x*x)/(x*x−(816.139)))+(((420.267)*x*x)/(x*x−(−706.86)))plus(((431.856)*x*x)/(x*x−(2355.29))))

where x=wavelength

and where nd=Sellmeier equation form of tear meibomian lipid refractiveindex derived from primary refractive index data from Tiffany, J M.Refractive index of meibomian and other lipids. Current Eye Research.5(11), 1986; 887-889: 430 nm: nd=1.5126; 450 nm:1.5044; 510 nm: 1.4894;590 nm:1.4769; 710 nm:1.4658. The Sellmeier equation coefficients werederived by fitting the limited Tiffany data (no data exist beyond 710nm, where most of the spectral range of the interferometer exists(spectral range: 559-1085 nm)) first to a polynomial(nd=5.04e−7x2−0.00736x+1.73481, wherein x=wavelength) to generateforecasted refractive index values at 600, 620, 640 and 680 nm, followedby fitting the Tiffany+forecasted refractive index data set to theSellmeier equation format wherein refractive index data beyond 710 nmcould be calculated and utilized. The Sellmeier equation format forlipid refractive index data is believed to provide more accuraterefractive index information, which is critical for accurate lipid layerthickness calculations.n ₂=1.32806+0.00306*(1000/λ)^2

Using the above equations, an Excel spreadsheet is created in which thevalues of the three refractive indices n₀, n₁ and n₂ are calculated(except for n₀, which is always 1) for the wavelengths within thewavelength range measured by the interferometer (e.g., for wavelengthsbetween 559-1085 nm). Then, using the expanded Euler's equation with allterms, R(λ) is calculated for a series of lipid layer thicknesses, d.The results from 575-1075 nm are seen in FIG. 2, presenting a series ofabsolute-value reflectance spectra for lipid layers of variousthicknesses.

The spectrum (not shown) for a lipid layer of 0 nm thickness is veryflat, lies just below that of a 20 nm thick lipid layer and produces anabsolute reflectance of 0.02% of the incident light at 550 nm. It can beseen in FIG. 2 that there is little difference in the slopes of thelipid layer spectra between 20-100 nm thicknesses, further reinforcingthe need to base lipid layer thickness calculations upon absolutereflectance values rather than parameters such as the slope or shape ofthe spectra. Thus, a 20 nm lipid layer will reflect about 0.025=2.5% ofthe incident light at 550 nm, whereas a 100 nm lipid layer will reflectabout 0.06=6% of the incident light at 550 nm. At 120 nm thickness andlarger, the slope of absolute reflectance begins to change from anegative slope to a flat slope. Beyond 140 nm thickness, as seen in FIG.1 for a 200 nm thickness, the slope becomes positive. Slope evaluationat 120 nm and beyond becomes a valuable tool to distinguish between athin or thick lipid layer.

Thus, for the majority of tear film lipid layers between 0-100 nmthickness, it is not a simple exercise to measure a tear lipid spectrumwith a wavelength-dependent optical interferometer and compare it to oneof the above absolute reflectance spectra. This is illustrated in FIG.3, which shows an unmodified measured tear lipid spectrum.

Accordingly, each measured spectrum must be converted to a calculatedabsolute spectrum and then compared to the absolute reflectivity derivedfrom theory. This comparison must be accomplished mathematically.

This new procedure required development and validation with thin filmstandards. Since thin lipid film standards are not available, thin SiO₂film standards, produced via vapor deposition of SiO₂ onto pure flatSilicon wafer substrates were used. These standards are commerciallyavailable (VLSI Standards, Inc. San Jose, Calif. 95134-2006) andcalibrated to within 0.1-0.01 nm thickness by NIST. The following SiO₂standards were employed (the 0 nm standard was a pure silicon waferwithout SiO₂; Table 1).

TABLE 1 SiO₂ Actual thickness, nm 0 48.26 95.01 188.58

Absolute reflectivity of these SiO₂ films were calculated, using thesame procedure with the expanded Euler equation above, substituting thecomplex refractive indices below for n₁ and n₂ (n₀=air=1, as before).SiO₂ n ₁=−9.3683E−11x ³+2.5230E−07x ²−2.3810E−04x+1.5302E+00Si n₂=SQRT(1+((5.66474*λ*λ)/((λ*λ)−119153))+((5.29869*λ*λ)/(λ*λ−(51556.1)))+((−24642*λ*λ)/(λ*λ)−(−146300000000))))(conversionof raw n ₂ data to the Sellmeier equation form)

The latter equation for the refractive index of pure silicon is in theform of the Sellmeier equation. This equation form is considered toprovide very accurate values of the refractive index as a function ofwavelength. Not all refractive index data are provided in this form,however. The resulting absolute reflectance spectra are seen in FIG. 4.

Interferometer-measured spectra for SiO₂ standards, as for measured tearfilm lipid spectra, are expressed as relative % reflectance, since themeasured reflectance from a thin film is measured relative to themeasured reflectance from a reference. The y-axis of a measured spectrumcorresponds to 100×R(λ) meas. sample/R(λ) meas. reference.

A number of different references can be used, although the bestreference for tear film spectra is one with the same radius of curvatureas the cornea (r=7.75 mm), to allow for the same reflectance geometry.In certain embodiments, a spherically-curved BK7 glass reference lens isused for this purpose. A pure flat silicon wafer can also be used as thereference for the SiO₂ standards, since both surfaces are flat. Theconversion procedure to convert a measured SiO₂ or tear film spectrum toa calculated absolute reflectance spectrum is to first divide by 100 andthen to multiply the (R(λ) meas. Sample/R(λ) meas. Reference)×R(λ)absolute reference. Here, R(λ) absolute reference is the calculatedtheoretical reflectivity of the reference and the abbreviation forabsolute when used throughout this disclosure will be: abs. This resultcan then be compared mathematically to a theoretical SiO2 or tear lipidspectrum, as illustrated in FIG. 4 for SiO₂. In order to accomplish thisprocedure, one has to first calculate R(λ) absolute reference (for pureSilicon or BK7). The equation which is used is derived from thefollowing equations.

If incident light is unpolarized, and since R=|r|² (since reflectedintensity is proportional to the square of the modulus of the electricfield amplitude and the dielectric function), then total R=(r_(s)²+r_(p) ²)/2.

Also, from Snell's law, where sin ψ=(n₁/n₂) sin φ, cos ψ=(1−(n₁ ²/n₂²)sin²φ^(1/2).

Then, from the theory of interface reflection between two isotropicmaterials (e.g. air and an isotropic solid such as Si or BK7), theindices of reflection are determined as follows:r _(s)=(n ₁ cos φ−n ₂ cos ψ)/(n ₁ cos φ+n ₂ cos ψ)=(n ₁ cos φ−n ₂(1−(n ₁² /n ₂ ²)sin²φ)^(1/2))/(n ₁ cos φ+n ₂(1−(n ₁ ² /n ₂ ²)sin²φ)^(1/2)), andr _(p)=(n ₂ cos φ−n ₁ cos ψ)/(n ₂ cos φ+n ₁ cos ψ)=(n ₂ cos φ−n ₁(1−(n ₁² /n ₂ ²)sin²φ)^(1/2))/(n ₂ cos φ+n ₁(1−(n ₁ ² /n ₂ ²)sin²φ)^(1/2))

These equations may also be written as:r _(s)=(n ₁ cos φ−(n ₂ ² −n ₁ ² sin²φ)^(1/2))/(n ₁ cos φ+(n ₂ ² −n ₁ ²sin²φ)^(1/2)).since (n ₂ ² −n ₁ ² sin²φ)^(1/2))=n ₂((n ₂ ² /n ₂ ²)−(n ₁ ² /n ₂²)sin²φ)^(1/2) =n ₂(n ₁ ² /n ₂ ² sin²φ)^(1/2) andr _(p)=(n ₂ cos φ−n ₁(1−(n ₁ ² /n ₁ ²)sin²φ)^(1/2))/(n ₂ cos φ+n ₁(1−(n₁ ² /n ₂ ²)sin²φ)^(1/2))

Then, since n₁=air=1, the equations above can be combined using therelationship R abs=(r_(s) ²+r_(p) ²)/2=R(λ) abs Si or R(λ) abs BK7 (i.e.to obtain calculated absolute reflectance values for silicon or BK7glass):R(λ)absSi=(((0.986659−D3*SQRT(1−(0.162799/D3)^2))/(0.986659+D3*SQRT(1−(0.162799/D3)^2)))^2+(((SQRT(1−(0.162799/D3)^2))−D3*0.986659)/((SQRT(1−(0.162799/D3)^2))+D3*0.986659))^2)/2

where D3=Sellmeier refractive index for Si at each λ,

and where 0.986659=cos φ and

0.162799=sin φ and where each wavelength is an exact wavelength measuredby the interferometer.

R(λ) abs BK7 is calculated for each wavelength using the same equation,except D3=Sellmeier refractive index for BK7 at each λ.Sellmeier BK7n=SQRT(1+(1.03961212*G3*G3)/(G3*G3−0.00600069867)+(0.231792344*G3*G3)/(G3*G3−0.0200179144)+(1.01046945*G3*G3)/(G3*G3−103.560653))where G3=interferometer wavelength in microns (BK7 refractive indexref=Schott technical information document TIE-29 (2005)).

FIG. 5 shows the results of converting measured SiO₂ spectra (using a 4Vor 4.5V light source voltage, 20 msec single scan) to calculatedabsolute reflectance spectra for various silicon reference standards.The measured relative spectra are first divided by 100 and thenmultiplied times R(λ) abs Si reference (Si abs R calculated) to obtainR(λ) abs SiO₂ sample spectra.

It can be seen that there are some relatively small differences betweenthe theoretical and calculated absolute spectra. These differences canbe mathematically calculated using an algorithm which compares thecalculated absolute spectra to theoretical absolute spectra of variousSiO₂ films of varying thicknesses. In one particular embodiment, this isaccomplished by creating a Statistica software program (StatSoft®,Tulsa, Okla.) based upon the expanded Euler equation from above:V5=(1−(8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4))))))wherev5=R(λ)SiO₂ measured sample×R(λ)abs Si reference (Si abs Rcalculated)/100

and where

v1=n₀ air=1,

v2=n₁(λ) SiO₂,

v3=n₂ (λ) Si,

v4=measured λ, and

the variable a, the fitted film thickness.

As shown below, the wavelength range for SiO₂ thin film standards mustbe limited to 575-1025 nm, to avoid signal weakness/potential opticalaberration at the wavelength extremes. Thus, the program requires theinput of five columns of calculated and measured data input as variables(i.e. v1-v5). The Non-linear Estimation method within the Statisticasoftware is used, wherein the equation for v5 above is input as thefunction to be estimated into the space provided in the user specifiedregression, least squares module. The Statistica software program usesthe Levenburg-Marquardt algorithm to achieve a minimum in the sum ofsquares of the differences between theoretical R and the product of R(λ)SiO₂ measured sample×R(λ) abs Si reference (Si abs R calculated)/100 ateach wavelength. In various embodiments, other mathematical algorithmsfor fitting data are available within Statistica and other softwareplatforms and can also be employed. This software module requires thenumber of calculation/fitting iterations to be selected. In oneembodiment, fifty iterations were found to be acceptable, although otherlower or higher numbers of iterations are also acceptable and can bereadily determined by an evaluation of the p-level of the fit. Allp-levels for thin films were found to be 0.00 and are thus highlysignificant.

The program also requires a starting value for the variable a-term, thefitted film thickness. This is indicated in the column labeled “STATInput” in Table 2 below for the SiO₂ thin film standards. It wasdiscovered through experiments with tear film spectra, presented below,that a starting value for the a-term that is too far from the actualthin film thickness value may converge to an incorrect result. It isbelieved that this may be a result of convergence to a local minimum inthe least squares sum. Considerable time may be required to run theprogram multiple times with different starting values until the correctvalue is found. Moreover, the correct tear film lipid layer thickness isnot known prior to calculation and thus the correct starting value isnot known. Thus, selecting the proper starting value is important notonly for a fast method, but also to achieve correct results. The humantear film lipid layer thickness typically ranges between 0 and 120 nm inthickness. Thus, in one particular embodiment a starting value of 65 nmhas been determined to produce correct results for tear film lipid layerthickness between 0 and about 100 nm thickness as well as for SiO₂ thinfilm standards between 0 and 95 nm. Other starting values may beemployed where necessary in cases where a 65 nm starting value isincorrect, as is the case for the 188.58 nm SiO₂ thin film standard, inwhich case a 200 nm starting value was used.

Subsequently, the validity of the method was demonstrated using a curvedBK7 glass reference lens having an identical radius of curvature as thehuman cornea, 7.75 mm. This particular lens is used as a reference whenmaking measurements of the human tear film in order to achieve optics asclose as possible to those during the human tear film measurements.

A similar mathematical process was completed using measured SiO₂ thinfilm standard spectra with different reference materials. FIG. 6 showsabsolute reflectance spectra obtained by converting measurements of therelative reflectance spectra for the 48.26 nm SiO₂ thin film standardwhich were measured relative to various reference materials, including aflat silicon wafer, a flat BK7 glass plate, and a curved BK7 glass lenshaving an identical radius of curvature as the human cornea, i.e. 7.75mm. The absolute spectra, determined from measured relative spectra, aregraphed relative to the calculated absolute spectrum for a 48.26 nm SiO₂thin film. FIG. 6 shows that when either a flat Silicon wafer or flatBK7 reference lens is used instead of the curved BK7 lens, the spectradetermined from the measured relative reflectance spectra closely matchthe respective theoretical spectrum. However, when the curved BK7 glasslens was used as the reference, the absolute reflectance spectrum thatwas obtained does not overlay the theoretical spectrum and instead isshifted downward. Without being limited as to theory, this is likelybecause the geometry of light reflection from the flat 48.26 nm SiO₂ andthe flat BK7 standards is not the same as the light reflection from thecurved BK7 glass lens.

Similar results were obtained with the other SiO₂ thin film standards(not shown). What became evident is that a final multiplier term (b) isrequired. The measured spectra must be multiplied by the b-term to matchthe theoretical spectra. Moreover, the b-term is a variable whichchanges between measured spectra. The b-term is in essence a lightfocusing term and corrects for non-identical focusing between thereference lens measurement and the human tear film measurement. Thus,the expanded Euler equation becomes:V5=(1−((8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4))))))*b

wherev5=R(λ)SiO₂ measured sample×R(λ)abs Si reference (Si abs Rcalculated)/100

and where

v1=n₀ air=1,

v2=n₁(λ) SiO₂,

v3=n₂(λ) Si,

v4=measured λ, and

the variable a, the fitted film thickness, and

the variable b, the final correction term which moves the measuredspectrum up or down on the theoretical R axis (y-axis) to achieve amatch with theory.

In one embodiment, the software program requires the b-term to be on theright-hand side of the equation and at the end of the equation, since itrequires starting input values for any variables (here a and b) to be inthe same order (left to right) in which they appear in the equationprogram line and the variable input value program line. Since the rightside of the above equation is the calculated theoretical reflectancewhich iteratively matches the calculated measured absolute reflectanceon the left hand side, the b-term may have a value less than 1 (a b-termon the right side of 0.5 would be equivalent to a b-term on the leftside of 2.0). It was determined through experiments varying the startingvalue of the b-term from 0 to 1.30 that the b-term value can start at arelatively wide range of values, for example between 0.40-0.80 orbetween 0 and 1.30, so that the program achieves the correct thickness.The center of the b-term range is about 0.66 and thus this is a goodstarting value.

All scan times herein for the SiO₂ thin film standards are single 20msec scans, whereas tear film spectra are typically sums of twelve 21msec scans. The program is very fast, calculating results for a singlespectrum in under a second and results for 50 spectra in 11 seconds. Theresults for the SiO₂ thin film standards are shown in Table 2 below.

TABLE 2 Avg. Meas. Meas. SiO2 SiO2 STAT Thickness, Thickness, ActualSiO2 Thickness, nm Input nm nm B 0 65 a 4.42 0.66 b 1.002 48.26 65 a47.57 48.12 0.66 b 1.026 48.26 65 a 48.37 0.66 b 0.994 48.26 65 a 48.430.66 b 1.035 95.01 65 a 98.54 98.56 0.66 b 1.062 95.01 65 a 98.57 0.66 b1.062 95.01 65 a 98.55 0.66 b 1.063 188.58 200 a 190.53 190.55 0.66 b1.033 188.58 200 a 190.55 0.66 b 1.032 188.58 200 a 190.56 0.66 b 1.030

FIG. 7 shows a standard curve comparing the actual thickness (in nm) ofthe SiO₂ standards to the thickness determined using the methodsdisclosed herein. As can be seen, the values obtained using thedisclosed methods closely match the actual thicknesses of the silicondioxide standards. These are excellent results, with only a 1.8 nm erroron average, maximum error of 3.6 nm and standard curve and slope=1.0014and 1.9156 nm, respectively, demonstrating that the basic mathematics ofthe disclosed methods are correct. The observed absolute error resultsare expected to decrease with higher scan-number values for eachstandard and longer scan times.

Table 3 shows the results of experiments with tear film interferometryspectra and demonstrates that using a starting value for the tear filmlipid layer thickness (i.e. the a-term) which is too far from the actuallipid thickness value can produce incorrect results. Lipid thicknessvalues for these spectra were verified with the '557 method. Startingvalues for the b-term in all cases were 0.66. Spectrum subj18rt11 isthat of a tear film during Oasys contact lens wear, indicating that themethod of the present invention is suitable for measuring tear filmlipid layers during contact lens wear.

TABLE 3 Statistica Statistica lipid thickness b-term Stat lipid startingSpectrum result, nm result thickness (a-term, nm) sub7base#49 82.170.2738 50, 90, 100 ok sub1#118 25.26 0.9987 65, 75 ok; 100 no: 130.79 wb = .4416 sub2AY 51.99 0.9949 40, 50, 65, 75 ok; 100 no: 102.95 w b =.6396 sub21#43 31.78 0.3701 40, 50, 65, 70 ok; 75 no: 110.86 w b = .1828sub2CV 78.18 0.9974 50, 65, 75, 100 ok subj18rt11 7.94 0.9322 65 ok; 73,100 no: 132.28 w b = .3757

FIG. 8 shows the results of using the methods disclosed herein tomeasure a thin MgF₂ film on a curved BK7 lens surface. This sampleserves as a surrogate for a human tear lipid film on the curved aqueouscorneal surface. The results show the MgF₂ film to be 111.98 nm thick.Here, the b-term started at 1 and converged to a value of 1.0473. Themeasured and theoretical spectra overlay one another exactly, furtherconfirming the method herein. FIG. 8 shows a theoretical spectrum(dashed line, - - - ) vs. b-term fitted spectrum (light grey line,overlapping dashed line) and spectrum without the b-term fit (blackline). Materials: MgF₂-coated BK7 lens, Edmund Optics (Barrington N.J.08007) part 49-886, radius of curvature=7.75 mm, used with uncoated BK7ref. lens, Edmund Optics part 49-876, radius of curvature=7.75 mm.

Given that the above results were obtained using the novel methodsdisclosed herein, there is potential uncertainty as to whether the MgF₂film thickness is 111.98 nm. Thus, a more rigorous method confirmationexperiment was conducted using a 12.7 mm diameter, 7.75 mm radius ofcurvature MgF₂-coated plano-convex BK7 lens (Edmunds part no. 49-855).Using the methods disclosed herein with an interferometer light sourcevoltage of 5.5V, the MgF₂ coating thickness was measured on both sides.The convex side was measured using a 7.75 mm radius of curvatureuncoated BK7 lens as reference and the b-term mathematics process wasemployed. The plano (flat) side was measured using a flat uncoated BK7reference lens. The thickness calculations for flat samples do notalways require the use of the b-term. The b-term is useful whenemploying flat references when the reference surface is not placedorthogonally to the incident light from the interferometer. Otherwise,the mathematics are identical to those used for curved surfaces. FIGS. 9and 10 present the results. In FIG. 9, Dark triangles=% R/100×BK7 R;Light lines=Fitted R/(b=1.0585); and Dark x=Theory R. In FIG. 10, Lighttriangles=% R/100×BK7 R; and Dark x=Theory R.

The methods herein determined MgF₂ coating thicknesses to be 110.49 nmand 108.73 nm for the convex and flat sides, respectively. This isconsistent with the assumption that the convex and flat surfaces werecoated identically. As a further confirmation of the thickness of theMgF₂ coating, a spectroscopic Ellipsometer (model alpha SE, J. A.Woollam, Lincoln, Nebr. 68508-2243) was employed to measure thickness ofthe coating on the flat surface. However, the convex surface coatingcould not be measured with the ellipsometer due to beam geometryrequiring flat samples. The ellipsometer measured a coating thicknessfor the flat surface of 110.0±0.64 nm, in excellent agreement with theinterferometer result of 108.73 nm for this surface (Δ thickness=1.27nm). Since ellipsometer measurements are considered correct within thinfilm technology hierarchy, and both the convex and flat surfaces areassumed to have identical coating thicknesses, the b-term method forthin films on curved surfaces has been additionally verified to have anerror of only about 1 nm.

Finally, the previously developed Statistica software program wasapplied to tear film lipid spectra, where the input data are v5=R(λ)meas tear lipid sample×R(λ) abs BK7 reference (BK7 abs R calc)/100 andwhere v1=n₀ air=1, v2=n₁(λ) lipid, v3=n₂ (λ) aqueous, v4=measured λ, thevariable ‘a’ is the fitted lipid film thickness, and the variable ‘b’ isthe final correction term which moves the measured spectrum up or downon the theoretical R axis (y-axis) to achieve a match with theory (FIG.11).

The measured spectra in FIG. 11 were plotted by dividing v5 by thefitted b-term at each wavelength. FIG. 11 shows lipid film thicknessesvarying from 13.75 nm to 23.03 nm, 53.86 nm, 107.76 nm and 124.37 nm. Itshould be noted that the tear spectra in FIG. 11 include cosine-functionoscillations from the aqueous layer (the smaller oscillations). Thesecan be subtracted using a modified software program. Also, it is clearfrom the spectrum of the 188.6 nm SiO2 standard (not shown), thatspectral data beyond 950-1000 nm may involve some optical error, perhapsfrom optical aberration. The spectrum of the 48.26 nm SiO₂ standard usedwith the curved BK7 reference in FIG. 7 also shows some optical errorabove 950-1000 nm. Thus, a refined software program may delete databeyond 950 nm. Nonetheless, it is seen that the lipid spectra match thetheoretical spectra very well. Note, these spectra were acquired over504 msec, to simultaneously measure the aqueous layer. It is known thatthe lipid layer thickness may change over this time interval. This cancause measured spectra such as the 53.86 nm spectrum to deviate somewhatfrom theory. In various embodiments, spectra will be acquired inintervals as short as 20-100 msec to resolve this question.Alternatively, the shape of the 53.86 nm spectrum may arise from lipidfilm thickness variation within the 133 um×12.5 um spot. In variousembodiments, the spot size will be reduced to resolve this question.

A modified Statistica software program was created, using a series ofinput values, where the input data are v6−v155=R(λ) meas tear lipidsamples and where v1=n₀ air=1, v2=n₁(λ) lipid, v3=n₂ (λ) aqueous,v4=measured λ and where v5=R(λ) abs BK7 reference (BK7 abs R calc)/100and where the variable a=the fitted lipid film thickness and thevariable b=the final correction term which moves the measured spectrumup or down on the theoretical R axis (y-axis) to achieve a match withtheory. Here the Euler equation becomes:v6−v155=(1−((8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4))))))*b/v5.

Statistica software program code follows for the first several spectrumcalculations (v6 and v7). Here, the starting value for lipidthickness=65 nm=a-term starting value. The b-term starting value is setto 0.66. Measured spectra wavelength is edited to 575-950 nm:

S1.DeleteCases 1, 30 and S1.DeleteCases 730, 994 Option Base 1 Sub MainDim AO As AnalysisOutput Dim AWB As Workbook Dim S1 As Spreadsheet SetS1 = ActiveDataSet S1.DeleteCases 1, 30 S1.DeleteCases 730, 994 Dimnewanalysis2 As Analysis Set newanalysis2 = Analysis(scNonlinearEstimation, S1) With newanalysis2.Dialog .NonlinearMethod =scNlnUserSpecifiedRegressionLeastSquares End With newanalysis2.Run Withnewanalysis2.Dialog .UserFunction = “v6 = ((1−((8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4)))))))*b/v5”.CasewiseDeletionOfMD = True End With newanalysis2.Run Withnewanalysis2.Dialog .EstimationMethod = scNlnLevenbergMarquardt.MaxNumberOfIterations = 50 .ConvergenceCriterion = 6 .StartValues = “65.66 ” End With newanalysis2.Run With newanalysis2.Dialog .AlphaForLimits= 95 .PLevelForHighlighting = 0.05 End With Set AO =newanalysis2.RouteOutput(newanalysis2.Dialog.Summary) AO.Visible = TrueIf AO.HasWorkbook Then Set AWB = AO.Workbook Else Set AWB = Nothing EndIf newanalysis2.GoBack With newanalysis2.Dialog .UserFunction = “v7 =((1− ((8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4)))))))*b/v5”.CasewiseDeletionOfMD = True End With newanalysis2.Run Withnewanalysis2.Dialog .EstimationMethod = scNlnLevenbergMarquardt.MaxNumberOfIterations = 50 .ConvergenceCriterion = 6 .StartValues = “65.66 ” End With newanalysis2.Run With newanalysis2.Dialog .AlphaForLimits= 95 .PLevelForHighlighting = 0.05 End With Set AO =newanalysis2.RouteOutput(newanalysis2.Dialog.Summary) AO.Visible = TrueIf AO.HasWorkbook Then Set AWB = AO.Workbook Else Set AWB = Nothing EndIf

The remaining program code follows the above repeating sequence foradditional spectra calculations.

A sample portion of the v1-v6 inputs for a single spectrum (columns 1-6,left to right, where v6=measured % reflectance for tear lipid spectrum#1) follows in Table 4. Note these columns extend to the last measuredwavelength (1085.11 nm, not shown), and the first 30 rows (shown asinput data examples here) and rows where λ≥950.6843 nm are deleted bythe software.

TABLE 4 1 1.48173057 1.33783826 559.409653 0.00042340272 36.8916 11.48165317 1.33782012 559.929243 0.000423370425 36.1339 1 1.481576041.33780203 560.448833 0.000423338215 36.167 1 1.48149916 1.33778399560.968423 0.00042330609 36.2099 1 1.48142254 1.337766 561.4880130.000423274049 36.5871 1 1.48134618 1.33774806 562.007604 0.00042324209336.8416 1 1.48127008 1.33773018 562.527194 0.000423210221 36.2501 11.48119423 1.33771234 563.046784 0.000423178432 36.5386 1 1.481118631.33769455 563.566375 0.000423146727 35.974 1 1.48104329 1.33767681564.085965 0.000423115104 35.8217 1 1.48096819 1.33765911 564.6055550.000423083565 35.6451 1 1.48089335 1.33764147 565.125145 0.00042305210735.7768 1 1.48081875 1.33762388 565.644736 0.000423020732 35.82 11.48074441 1.33760633 566.164326 0.000422989438 35.8625 1 1.480670311.33758883 566.683916 0.000422958225 35.8153 1 1.48059646 1.33757138557.203506 0.000422927093 35.9704 1 1.48052285 1.33755398 557.7230960.000422896042 35.9033 1 1.48044948 1.33753663 568.242687 0.00042286507235.8368 1 1.48037636 1.33751932 568.762277 0.000422834181 35.5937 11.48030348 1.33750206 569.281867 0.00042280337 35.6052 1 1.480230841.33748485 569.801457 0.000422772638 35.6605 1 1.48015843 1.33746768570.321048 0.000422741985 35.3016 1 1.48008627 1.33745056 570.8406380.000422711411 35.7279 1 1.48001434 1.33743349 571.360228 0.00042268091635.6287 1 1.4799428 1.3374165 571.878762 0.00042265056 35.2528 11.47987134 1.33739952 572.398352 0.00042262022 34.7073 1 1.479800121.33738259 572.917943 0.000422589957 35.3448 1 1.47972913 1.3373657573.437533 0.000422559772 35.0115 1 1.47965838 1.33734886 573.9571230.000422529664 35.5492 1 1.47958785 1.33733207 574.476713 0.00042249963235.069 1 1.4795177 1.33731535 574.995248 0.000422469737 35.1151 11.47944763 1.33729865 575.514838 0.000422439857 34.7243

FIG. 12 illustrates the results of using the lipid thickness methodherein to measure tear lipid layer thickness 150× over a 25.2 secondperiod. It was found that in a few cases, a 65 nm starting value for thea-term resulted in a correct, but negative value, for the thickness. Inany case, such results occur infrequently. A test of the current methodwith these 150 spectra produced only 5 such results (3.3%), which isconsidered acceptable. It is not currently known why correct values withnegative signs are observed. All of the negative-sign results observedthus far have occurred with lipid layer thickness values less than 39.45nm, which are further away from the 65 nm starting value than manyspectra. In any case, positive-value results are obtained for theaforementioned negative-value spectra by using a lower starting valuefor the a-term. Aqueous layer thickness and blinking were measuredsimultaneously according to known methods. Blinks are easily visualizedby the spiking in the aqueous layer thickness at the same time as theblink. This technological capability to accurately and quickly measurethe tear film lipid layer has not previously been demonstrated. Theresults show that the lipid layer averages 61.0 nm and thickens onaverage about 50 nm very quickly after a blink, within on average 0.588seconds. These results are generally consistent with Korb, et. al,(Korb, D R, et. al. Tear Film Lipid Layer Thickness as a Function ofBlinking. Cornea 13 (4):354-359. 1994), who showed that individuals witha lipid layer thickness of 75-150 nm demonstrated a mean increase inlipid layer thickness of 33 nm following forceful blinking. They arealso consistent with Goto, et. al, (Goto, E and Tseng, C G.Differentiation of Lipid Tear Deficiency Dry Eye by Kinetic Analysis ofTear Interference Images. Arch Ophthalmol. Vol. 121, February 2003,173-180.), who showed that for those with 75 nm lipid films, mean lipidspread time following a blink was 0.36±0.22 seconds. FIG. 12 shows thatcontrary to one conventional theory, lipid layer thickening following ablink does not precede aqueous layer thickening. However, this is asingle small test of the technology, and not a rigorous test of tearfilm spreading theory.

In various embodiments, the disclosed methods may be carried out on acomputing system in communication with an interferometer (e.g. awavelength-dependent interferometer). The computing system may includeone or more computer systems in communication with one another throughvarious wired and wireless communication means which may includecommunications through the Internet and/or a local network (LAN). Eachcomputer system may include an input device, an output device, a storagemedium (including non-transient computer-readable media), and aprocessor such as a microprocessor. Possible input devices include akeyboard, a computer mouse, a touch screen, and the like. Output devicesinclude a cathode-ray tube (CRT) computer monitor, a LCD or LED computermonitor, and the like. Storage media may include various types of memorysuch as a hard disk, RAM, flash memory, and other magnetic, optical,physical, or electronic memory devices. The processor may be anysuitable computer processor for performing calculations and directingother functions for performing input, output, calculation, and displayof data in the disclosed system. Implementation of the computing systemmay include generating a set of instructions and data that are stored onone or more of the storage media and operated on by a controller. Thus,one or more controllers may be programmed to carry out embodiments ofthe disclosed invention. The data associated with the system may includeimage data, numerical data, or other types of data.

Novel mathematical algorithms and software methods have beenindependently developed to calculate absolute-reflectance of tear filmlipid layers from measured tear film lipid layer reflectance usingwavelength-dependent optical interferometry. The absolute reflectancemeasurements are used for the accurate and quick determination of lipidlayer thickness. These algorithms are consistent with optical theory,with the exception of a single b-term, which may be empiricallyexplained by light reflection from a curved surface or fromnon-orthogonal placement of a flat surface or from out-of-focus lightreflection.

Thickness errors for the methods herein for thin films on curvedsurfaces in perfect focus are only a few nanometers (nm). In practice,collecting ≥50 tear lipid measurements, deleting out-of-focus spectra,and averaging the remaining spectra will keep lipid thickness errorssmall.

These methods are suitable for the quantitative evaluation of theeffects of novel dual-function lipid-supplementation tear formulas onthe tear film lipid layer. They are also useful for evaluating theeffects of other eye drops, ophthalmic dry eye drugs and MPS solutions,and contact lenses on the tear film lipid layer.

Novel features of the present disclosure include the use of the expandedEuler equation with interferometer-dependent wavelength selection ofwavelength-dependent Sellmaier equation-fitted complex refractiveindices in the software program to calculate tear film lipid layerthickness, where v6, the measured reflectance variable R(λ) in anexpanded Euler equation, is known and the actual lipid thickness dbecomes the fitted lipid film thickness variable “a” (e.g., variablereversal in the expanded Euler equation) and wherein the expanded Eulerequation also has a variable b, which is the final correction term whichmathematically adjusts measured reflectance R (moves the measuredspectrum up or down on the theoretical R axis (y-axis)) to achieve amatch with theory:v6=(1−(8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4))))))*b/v5

where

v1=n₀ air=1,

v2=n₁(λ) lipid (Sellmeier-form),

v3=n₂(λ) aqueous,

v4=measured λ, and

v5=R(λ) abs BK7 reference (BK7 abs R calc)/100 and

wherein a Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm is used with a novel softwareprogram and a starting value for the a-term of 65 nm and for the b-termbetween 0 and 1.30 so that the program achieves the correct thicknessand wherein spectral data without optical aberration between 575-950 nmare most preferred.

Other novel features include a method wherein a tear film lipid spectrumand slope is evaluated and a tear lipid layer thickness is estimated andthis thickness estimate is thereafter used as the starting value for thea-term in the method above.

The following non-limiting Examples are intended to be purelyillustrative, and show specific experiments that were carried out inaccordance with embodiments of the invention.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Differential Reflection of Light of VaryingWavelengths by the Lipid Layer

Conventional thinking that the tear film lipid layer retards waterevaporation from the aqueous layer of the tear film is now beingquestioned by several research groups. (See Fenner B J, Tong L. More tostable tears than thickness of the tear film lipid layer. InvestOphthalmol Vis Sci. 2015; 56:1601; incorporated by reference herein inits entirety). Nevertheless, the tear film lipid layer unambiguouslyreflects light of different wavelengths differentially. Maximum lipidlayer light reflection across the short wavelength spectrum encompassingUVB, UVA, violet and blue light wavelengths peaks at about a lipid layerthickness range of 50-80 nm. Excluding UVB wavelengths, which naturalhuman lenses block, maximum lipid layer light reflection for the sum ofthree selected midpoint of range wavelengths representing UVA (360 nm),violet (420 nm) and blue (470 nm), peaks at about a lipid layerthickness of 66 nm. It is of interest to note that the tear film lipidlayer has been reported to have an average thickness of about 74 nm, ±23nm (sd), with a range of 34-119 nm (Huth S W et al. U.S. Pat. No.8,602,557 B2, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Anothergroup measured the lipid layer and found a mean value of 76 nm±25 nm,range 23-134 nm (Finis D et al. Evaluation of lipid layer thicknessmeasurement of the tear film as a diagnostic tool for meibomian glanddysfunction. Cornea. 2013; 32(12): 1549-1553, incorporated herein byreference in its entirety). Fenner and Tong (2105) measured tear filmlipid layer thickness and found an average of 64.9±23.5 nm. Thesethickness measurements coincide nicely with the maximum lightreflectivity of the lipid layer across the short wavelength range. Eventhough lipid layer light reflectivity values are low (e.g. on averageabout 5% to 6% of the short wavelength light can be blocked by a 50-80nm lipid layer), over several decades this may become biologicallymeaningful. This serves as the hypothetical biological rationale formethods of the present invention involving measurement of the tear filmlipid layer and thereafter to recommend a light blocking IOL.

Several studies have implicated short-wavelength, e.g. UVB (290-320 nm),UVA (320-400 nm), violet (400-440 nm) and/or blue-light (440-500 nm) asrisk factors for age-related macular degeneration following cataractsurgery. Also, the natural human lens retards transmission of UVA,violet, blue and green light, with older lenses transmitting less light(Mainster MA. Violet and blue light blocking intraocular lenses:photoprotection versus photoreception. Br. J Ophthalmol. 2006 June;90(6):784-792, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Theaforementioned article from Mainster reviews the spectral transmissionproperties of various IOLs. In general, the light transmission acrossall wavelengths of various commercial IOLs decreases in the order: UVtransmitting>reduced UV blocking>UV only blocking>violet blocking>blueblocking lenses. Reduced UV blocking lenses are not described in theMainster reference. These are defined herein as a lens such as theAbbott Medical Optics Inc. (AMO) Tecnis® or Sensar® brand IOLs, whichblock part of the UV radiation. Examples of Tecnis® brand IOLs whichblock part of the UV radiation are the Tecnis® ZCB00, PCB00 and ZMB00lenses. An example of the Sensar® brand IOL is the Sensar® AAB00 lens.These are distinguished from the AMO Tecnis® Optiblue lens, which is aviolet blocking IOL, as described in the Mainster reference. Thus theTecnis® brand name is used for both reduced UV blocking and violetblocking IOLs. Recommendations have been developed for either a UVtransmitting or reduced UV, UV only, violet or blue-blocking intraocularlens (IOL) based upon interpretation of these studies. Nonetheless, theinventors are not aware of a personal ocular diagnostic test that isavailable to quantitatively assess relative posterior ocular lightexposure at these wavelengths.

Thus, in various embodiments candidates for IOL implantation may beprovided with ocular diagnostic information about their relativeposterior ocular UVB, UVA, violet and blue light exposure derived fromtheir personal ocular biological characteristics, to assess theirrelative need for an IOL that attenuates or blocks at least onewavelength of light corresponding to ultraviolet, violet, or blue light,in particular a UV transmitting, reduced UV blocking, UV only blocking,violet blocking or blue blocking IOL lens. Thus, instead of generatingestimates of this shorter wavelength light exposure that are based uponenvironment and personal behavior, a quantitative measure of relativeexposure can be provided as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, thequantitative measure of relative exposure which is provided using themethods and systems disclosed herein may be combined with estimates thatare based upon environment and personal behavior. The quantitativemeasure is based upon a measurement of the UVB, UVA, violet and bluelight reflectivity or transmission of the patient's tear film lipidlayer, since UVB, UVA, violet and blue light reflectivity (and hencetransmission, which is the inverse of reflectivity) of the tear filmlipid layer are uniform and repeatable functions of lipid layerthickness.

Accordingly, the methods of the present Example include the steps of (1)measuring tear film lipid layer thickness; (2) determining UVA and/orUVB and/or violet and/or blue light reflectivity or transmission of thelipid layer from a mathematical function which correlates lipid layerthickness to reflectivity or transmission; and (3) providing arecommendation for an IOL with a specific light transmission property.Using the methods disclosed herein, the tear film lipid layer thicknessis determined for a given patient. This lipid layer thickness is thenused to determine UVA and/or UVB and/or violet and/or blue lightreflectivity or transmission as described below. FIG. 13 showscalculated tear film lipid layer absolute reflectance R(λ) vs.wavelength for varying tear film lipid layer thicknesses in a wavelengthrange of 290-500 nm, which includes UV, violet and blue light. FIG. 14shows the relationship between tear film lipid layer thickness andreflectance at UVB (e.g. about 305 nm; similar relationships can beconstructed for wider ranges of UVB, e.g. about 300-310 nm or about290-320 nm), UVA (e.g. about 360 nm; similar relationships can beconstructed for wider ranges of UVA, e.g. about 340-380 nm, or 320-400nm), violet (e.g., about 420 nm; similar relationships can beconstructed for wider ranges of violet, e.g., about 410-430 nm, or400-440 nm) and blue (e.g. about 470 nm; similar relationships can beconstructed for wider ranges of blue, e.g. about 460-480 nm, or about440-500 nm, derived from data such as that shown in FIG. 13.

From the data in FIG. 14, it can be seen that lipid layer reflectance atUVB, UVA, violet, and blue wavelengths is a sine function of lipid layerthickness. Further, from basic optical principles, light transmission isan inverse function of reflectance. In other words, transmission ishigher when reflectance is lower and vice versa. Also,transmission+reflectance=100%, assuming light scattering=0. Thus, it isseen that tear film lipid layers of about 60 nm and about 180 nmthicknesses, which correspond to local maxima in the reflectance curvefor 360 nm light, have maximal light reflectance and thus minimal lighttransmission into the eye at the UVA light wavelength of 360 nm. Incontrast, individuals with lipid layer thicknesses of about 0 nm andabout 120 nm, which correspond to local minima in the reflectance curvefor 360 nm light, will have maximal UVA light transmission into the eye.Table 5 presents an example of how this information can be used inprescribing an IOL lens. Table 5 shows light reflection at variouswavelengths vs. tear film lipid layer thickness, as well as the sum oflight reflectance for the UVA+UVB wavelengths and the sum for 420 and470 nm wavelengths. In various embodiments, reflectances at otherwavelengths may be combined to provide additional information forprescribing an IOL lens. In certain embodiments, reflectance at a UVAwavelength and at a UVB wavelength can be added together to obtain a UVlight sum and reflectance at a violet light wavelength and a blue lightwavelength can be added together to obtain a visible light sum, and theUV light sum and the visible light sum can each be compared to referencevalues to identify an IOL for attenuating or blocking at least onewavelength of light corresponding to UV, violet, or blue light, asdiscussed further below.

TABLE 5 Tear UVB UVA Violet Blue sum lipid (305 (360 (420 (470 (UVA +sum(420 + t, nm nm) nm) nm) nm) UVB) 470) 0 0.023 0.022 0.022 0.0210.046 0.043 20 0.053 0.038 0.031 0.028 0.091 0.059 40 0.094 0.067 0.0510.043 0.161 0.094 60 0.088 0.079 0.067 0.058 0.168 0.125 80 0.043 0.0640.067 0.064 0.106 0.131 100 0.025 0.034 0.051 0.058 0.059 0.109 1200.064 0.023 0.031 0.042 0.086 0.073 140 0.098 0.042 0.022 0.027 0.1390.049 160 0.080 0.070 0.031 0.021 0.150 0.052 180 0.034 0.079 0.0510.029 0.113 0.080 200 0.030 0.060 0.067 0.044 0.090 0.111

An example of an algorithm to use to determine a prescriptionrecommendation for a particular IOL is as follows: If the UVA+UVB sum is≥0.106 and the 420+470 nm sum is simultaneously ≥0.0904, then arecommendation for either a UV transmitting or reduced UV blocking IOLmay be given. This corresponds to measured tear film lipid layerthicknesses of 40, 60 or 80 nm or, more generally, any tear film lipidlayer thickness between 40-80 nm. If the UVA+UVB sum is 0.059-0.106 andthe 420+470 nm sum is simultaneously >0.0904, then a recommendation fora UV blocking IOL can be given. This corresponds to measured tear filmlipid layer thicknesses of 40, 80-100 and 200 nm. If the 420 nmreflectance is <0.042 and the 470 nm reflectance is ≥0.042, then arecommendation for a violet blocking IOL can be given. This correspondsto measured tear film lipid layer thicknesses about 120 nm. If the420+470 nm reflectance sum is between 0.043-0.094, then a recommendationfor a blue blocking IOL can be given. This corresponds to measured tearfilm lipid layer thicknesses of from 0 to about 40 nm and about 120 toabout 180 nm.

Thus, the foregoing example method involves first measuring thesubject's tear film lipid layer thickness and, based on the thickness,thereafter determining the lipid layer reflectance at UVA (360 nm), UVB(305 nm), violet (420 nm) and blue (470 nm) light wavelengths, summingthe reflectance values for UVA+UVB and also for 420+470 nm, and thenfollowing the algorithm above for IOL selection based upon thereflectance sums. Note that for some tear film lipid layer thicknesses,multiple options for IOLs may be recommended. In these cases, otherfactors can be taken under consideration in determining the IOLrecommendation, such as the refractive vision needs of the patient.Thus, both safety and refractive vision needs can be taken underconsideration simultaneously.

Table 6 summarizes the IOL recommendations for this example withreference to specific commercial IOLs. Note that specific commercialIOLs were selected based upon information provided in the Mainsterreference, with the exception of the AMO reduced UV-blockingTecnis®/Sensar® IOLs. Other IOLs with spectral transmissioncharacteristics which are similar to or different from those in Table 6can also be prescribed for implantation into the eye based upon thedisclosed methods.

Other algorithms linking tear film lipid layer thickness andreflectivity to spectral transmission characteristics of IOLs can alsobe utilized. An example of a general approach is to select an IOL havinglight wavelength blocking characteristics that match in wavelength orrange of wavelengths the single lowest tear film lipid layerreflectivity or reflectivity range for the subject's tear film lipidlayer thickness. For example, from FIG. 14 it can be seen that for atear film lipid layer thickness of 50 nm, light of 470 nm has the lowestreflectance level among the four wavelengths that are graphed and thusone approach would be to select an IOL that blocks 470 nm light.

Alternatively, if the subject's lipid layer thickness indicates lowvalues of light reflectivity for one or more wavelength ranges, an IOLcan be selected which blocks light wavelengths corresponding to thelongest wavelengths of the aforementioned ranges, as such IOLs alsonaturally block light wavelengths at shorter wavelength values (e.g.,blue blocking IOLs also block violet, UVA and UVB light; violet blockingIOLs also block shorter wavelengths but do not block blue light).

TABLE 6 Tear lipid t, nm IOL Recommendation 0 Blue blocking (e.g., AlconAcrySof SN60AT:AN30) 20 Blue blocking (e.g., Alcon AcrySof SN60AT:AN30)40 Blue blocking or UV transmitting or reduced UV-blocking 60 UVtransmitting (e.g., Eyeonics Crystalens AT-45:EC20) or reducedUV-blocking (e.g., AMO Tecnis/Sensar) 80 UV only blocking (e.g., AMOClariflex: AC20) or reduced UV-blocking (e.g., AMO Tecnis/Sensar) or UVtransmitting 100 UV only blocking (e.g., AMO Clariflex: AC20) 120 Blueor violet blocking (e.g., AMO Optiblue: AV20 & AV30) 140 Blue blocking160 Blue blocking 180 Blue blocking 200 UV only blocking (e.g., AMOClariflex: AC20)

In various embodiments, reflectance may be determined for otherwavelengths of light in the UV-violet-blue range (e.g. from about290-500 nm) and used in conjunction with the diagnostic and treatmentprocedures disclosed herein. In some embodiments, certain tear filmlipid layer thicknesses (or ranges of thicknesses) are identified atparticular wavelengths as corresponding to local reflectance minima ormaxima and thus diagnoses and treatments may be made based on the tearfilm lipid layer thickness alone without requiring an intervening stepof determining the reflectance or transmission values.

In certain embodiments, the methods disclosed herein may be used toassess a patient's relative UV-violet-blue range (e.g. from about290-500 nm) exposure in advance of cortical cataract formation. In suchembodiments, a thickness of the patient's tear film lipid layer isdetermined and, using the methods described above and referring to agraph such as that shown in FIG. 14, the amount of UV-violet-blue rangeexposure may be determined based at least in part on the level ofUV-violet-blue range reflectance/transmission for the patient.

In further embodiments, measurement of the patient's tear film lipidlayer and determination of the amount of reflectance/transmission at agiven wavelength (e.g. UVA/360 nm or blue light/470 nm) may be followedby administration (e.g. topical application) of an ophthalmiccomposition to alter light reflectance of the tear film lipid layer toimprove one or more properties, for example to reduce transmission oflight of undesirable wavelengths such as UVA, UVB, violet, or bluelight. Topical application of ophthalmic compositions may be used tochange properties of the lipid layer, for example to thicken the lipidlayer, or the compositions may be applied to block or reducetransmission of light of particular wavelengths or ranges ofwavelengths. An example of a type of ophthalmic composition which can beused to thicken the tear film lipid layer is an oil-in-wateremulsion-based artificial tear. Examples of the latter are disclosed inWO 2011/068955 A1 and US 2013/0197083 A1, both of which are incorporatedherein by reference in their entirety.

In still other embodiments, measurement of the patient's tear film lipidlayer and determination of the amount of reflectance/transmission at agiven wavelength (e.g. UVA/360 nm or blue light/470 nm) may be followedby a determination and recommendation of eyewear (e.g. contact lenses orglasses) with particular light transmission/blocking properties. Forexample, yellow-tinted sunglasses (which reduce or block blue light) maybe recommended for an individual with a measured lipid layer thicknesswhich maximizes blue light transmission. See, for example, the Mainsterreference discussed above as well as Marmor (Marmor M F. Double fault!Ocular hazards of a tennis sunglass. Arch Ophthalmol 2001; 119:1064-1066), which discloses that sunglasses typically block 93% ofviolet light (400-440 nm) and 88% of blue light (440-500 nm). In variousembodiments, contact lenses with light-blocking properties can also beprescribed.

In other embodiments, one or more of the treatments above, includingimplantation of light-blocking IOLs, application of ophthalmiccompositions, and use of particular eyewear, may be used in combinationwith one another.

Example 2: Use of Standard Error to Determine Goodness of Fit andQuality of Lipid Layer Thickness Estimate

In some implementations of the Levenburg-Marquardt fitting algorithmemployed in the presently-disclosed methods for determining tear filmlipid layer thickness, less accurate or even incorrect resultsassociated with a local, as opposed to a global, minimum in the leastsquares sum may be generated when an improper starting thickness valueis used to start the iterative fitting procedure of the algorithm.Therefore, to determine lipid layer thickness there is a need todistinguish the more accurate or correct thickness results from thoseproduced from poor fits. This Example describes using the standard errorassociated with the tear film lipid layer result to determine thegoodness of fit and thus the reliability of the thickness result. Wehave observed that a low standard error corresponds to a better fitbetween the calculated absolute reflectance of the measured spectrum andthe model theoretical absolute lipid reflectance spectrum. Thus byselecting values with low standard error, one can distinguish whichthickness results are derived from better fits.

Three SiO₂ thin film standards calibrated to within 0.1-0.01 nmthickness by NIST (VLSI Standards, Inc. San Jose, Calif. 95134-2006)were used to validate this new procedure. Each standard was measuredwith a wavelength-dependent optical interferometer, and the resultingrelative reflectance spectrum was converted to a calculated absolutereflectance spectrum by dividing by 100 and then multiplying by theabsolute Si reference reflectance. The Statistica (StatSoft®, Tulsa,Okla.) software program employed in the present invention was then usedto fit the calculated absolute reflectance spectrum to the equationbelow to obtain an estimated thickness value. Various input thicknessvalues, denoted as variable a, were used to generate the results shownin Table 7 for all three SiO₂ standards. It was discovered that thecorrect thickness value was obtained only when the associated standarderror was below 0.1. All the incorrect results had standard errors muchgreater than 0.1. This was surprising, as the standard error in thissoftware program is close to and essentially 2σ of the mean result.Thus, for thin films on the order of 20-200 nm thickness, for examplethe SiO₂ thin film standard at 95.01 nm thickness, a σ value of 0.7691does not appear to be large enough to be significant. However, thiserror was associated with a thickness result of 323.99 nm for this 95.01nm standard, a difference error of 228.98 nm. Therefore, the role of thestandard error in this software program in the reliability of the resultis not evident without the rigorous analysis herein.

The expanded Euler equation for use in the Statistica program isrepeated from above:V5=(1−(8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4))))))*b

wherev5=R(λ)SiO2 measured sample×R(λ)abs Si reference (Si abs Rcalculated)/100

and where

v1=n₀ air=1,

v2=n₁(λ) SiO2,

v3=n₂(λ) Si,

v4=measured λ, and

the variable a, the fitted film thickness, and

the variable b, the final correction term which moves the measuredspectrum up or down on the theoretical R axis (y-axis) to achieve amatch with theory.

TABLE 7 Actual SiO₂ Starting Measured SiO₂ Thickness Input Thickness(nm) Standard Input b (nm) for “a” (Final “a” value) error for bestimate 48.26 50 47.57 0.0201 0.66 1.03 65 47.57 0.0201 0.66 1.03 10047.57 0.0201 0.66 1.03 150 121.29 0.3843 0.66 2.67 200 269.48 0.69670.66 0.98 95.01 50 98.54 0.0487 0.66 1.06 65 98.54 0.0487 0.66 1.06 10098.54 0.0487 0.66 1.06 200 323.99 0.7691 0.66 0.59 250 323.99 0.76910.66 0.59 188.58 125 190.53 0.0525 0.66 1.03 150 190.53 0.0525 0.66 1.03200 190.53 0.0525 0.66 1.03 300 190.53 0.0525 0.66 1.03 350 458.770.8485 0.66 0.96

The method of using the standard error to evaluate thickness results canbe applied to tear film lipid spectra. Interferometric reflectancespectra of a human subject's right eye tear film were collected, asdescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 7,963,655 B2 (incorporated by referenceherein in its entirety) and processed with the modified Statisticaprogram where the input data ranges are v6-v155=R(λ) meas tear lipidsamples and where v1=n₀ air=1, v2=n₁(λ) lipid, v3=n₂ (λ) aqueous,v4=measured λ and where v5=R(λ) abs BK7 reference (BK7 abs R calc)/100and where the variable a=the fitted lipid film thickness and thevariable b=the final correction term which moves the measured spectrumup or down on the theoretical R axis (y-axis) to achieve a match withtheory. Here the Euler equation becomes:v6−v155=(1−((8*v1*v2**2*v3)/((v1**2+v2**2)*(v2**2+v3**2)+4*v1*v2**2*v3+((v1**2−v2**2)*(v2**2−v3**2)*(cos(4*3.14159*v2*a*0.98666/v4))))))*b/v5

It can be seen that for lipid thickness values with a low standarderror, as illustrated by RR Baseline#48, the absolute calculatedreflectance spectrum (solid grey line, FIG. 15) closely matches thetheoretical reflectance spectrum (dashed lines, FIG. 15). On the otherhand, for thickness values with a high standard error, represented by RRBaseline#50, the fit between the absolute calculated reflectance and thetheoretical reflectance is poor (FIG. 16). Thus the validity of theestimated thickness value, as seen by how well the measured spectrumfits to the theoretical spectrum, can be indicated by the size of thestandard error.

To further illustrate this point, the standard error associated with thelipid layer thicknesses of 50 tear film spectra is plotted against thedifference between the theoretical reflectance and the absolutecalculated reflectance (denoted as Delta R) at 625 nm, 825 nm, and 1000nm (FIGS. 17-19) near the ends (625, 1000 nm) and middle (825 nm) of thespectra. As seen in FIGS. 17-19, as Delta R approaches zero, thestandard error approaches 0.1 or less at the three representativewavelengths presented. Note in FIGS. 18 and 19 that Delta R values canapproach 0 from both above and below the Delta R=0 axis. Note also thatsince FIG. 18 presents data at 825 nm near the center of the wavelengthrange, and that the Levenburg-Marquardt fitting algorithm is essentiallycomparing a theoretical slope line to a measured slope line wherein thecenters of the lines near 825 nm often coincide in a “fulcrum-like”manner, low 825 nm Delta R values can be obtained with high standarderrors because the plotted standard errors are derived from allwavelengths rather than just 825 nm. Overall, because low standard erroroccurs only when the difference between the complete measured andtheoretical spectra (delta R) is low, one can use low standard error asa way to select more reliable thickness results.

A related method of the present invention involves determining the lipidlayer thickness from the extracted lipid contribution of a measuredspectrum. An interferometric reflectance spectrum of a human subject'stear film was taken, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,963,655 B2. Themeasured reflectance data was then fit to the following equation(Equation 1) where v2=measured reflectance, v1=wavelength,d=R0=(Rmax+Rmin)/2 where R=reflectance,e/2d=amplitude=(Rmax−Rmin)/(Rmax+Rmin), nd=refractive index of film,g=thickness of the aqueous+lipid layer, h=phase, the a, b, and c termsrepresent a 2nd order polynomial used to fit the raw data to the largeslope oscillation caused by the lipid layer and the Exp(−j/(v1)2) termcorrects for the modulation of fringe amplitude with wavelength.v2=−a−b*v1−c*v1**2+d*(1+(e/2*d)*cos((16.745*g/v1)+h))*Exp(−J/v1**2)  Equation1:

The lipid contribution was then extracted out by taking the polynomialportion and Exp(−J/v1**2) term from the fitted equation above to formEquation 2. The Statistica software program employed in the presentinvention to calculate lipid layer thickness was then applied to a setof reflectance vs. wavelength data derived from the lipid contributionEquation 2 to determine the lipid layer thickness.v2=−a−b*v1−c*v1**2+d*Exp(−J/v1**2)  Equation 2:

This method was performed on a tear film spectrum which was fit toEquation 1 to obtain the following equation below:y=−(4.1861)−(0.006799)*x−(−0.33e−5)*x**2+1.18619*(1+((−0.59965)/2*(1.18619))*cos((16.745*(1572.15)/x)+(−2.9802)))*exp(−(498700/x**2)

The lipid contribution equation then becomesy=−(4.1861)−(0.006799)*x−(−0.33e−5)*x**2+1.18619*exp(−(498700/x**2).When the lipid layer thickness was calculated for the original spectrumand secondly for the lipid-only spectrum, the standard error of thelipid only spectrum was much lower than the standard error of theoriginal spectrum. The original spectrum had an estimated lipidthickness value of 31.5 nm with a relatively high standard error of 1.2,while the lipid spectrum had a thickness value of 26.5 nm and a muchlower standard error of 0.09 (Table 8). As seen when the lipid-onlyreflectance spectrum (dashed lines) was graphed with the originalmeasured reflectance spectrum in FIG. 20, the aqueous oscillations areabsent from the lipid spectrum. It is surmised that aqueous oscillationsmay obscure the calculation of the lipid layer thickness and therebyproduce a lipid thickness result with a higher standard error. Thus theapplication of this method of using the lipid contribution from a tearfilm spectrum will help lower the standard error of the lipid layerestimate.

TABLE 8 Original Spectrum Lipid Spectrum Lipid Layer Thickness, nm31.49552 26.54374 Standard error 1.227539 0.091551

Accordingly, in various embodiments the method of determining a tearfilm lipid layer thickness includes measuring a tear film aqueous pluslipid layer relative reflectance spectrum using a wavelength-dependentoptical interferometer; converting the measured tear film aqueous pluslipid layer relative reflectance spectrum to a calculated absolutereflectance spectrum; iteratively comparing the calculated absolutereflectance spectrum to a plurality of theoretical absolute reflectancelipid spectra to determine a tear film lipid layer thickness estimate;determining a standard error for the tear film lipid layer thicknessestimate; and identifying a correct lipid layer thickness based on thestandard error.

In certain embodiments a starting value is used for the variable ‘a’,the fitted film thickness. The Statistica software program then performsan iterative curve fitting as described previously, updating the ‘a’value with each iteration e.g., 50 iterations or more). A standard erroris determined for the various fitted film thickness estimates and, ingeneral, the correct lipid layer thickness is identified based on whenthe standard error value is minimized. In some embodiments, a standarderror of 0.1 or less indicates that the estimated thickness value isaccurate, while a standard error of greater than 0.1 indicates that theestimated thickness value is less accurate or even inaccurate (e.g. seeTable 7).

In some embodiments, when it is determined that the estimated thicknessvalue is inaccurate, e.g. due to a standard error value being above 0.1,the iterative procedure may be restarted using a different startingvalue for the variable ‘a.’ As shown in Table 7, the choice of startingvalue for ‘a’ can influence the final estimated thickness estimate, i.e.the final value for ‘a’ after all of the iterations have been completed,and the standard error values provide a mechanism for identifying whichare the correct final estimates.

REFERENCES

The following references are herein incorporated by reference in theirentirety:

-   Scaffidi, R C, Korb, R. Comparison of the Efficacy of Two Lipid    Emulsion Eyedrops in Increasing Tear Film Lipid Layer Thickness. Eye    & Contact Lens: Science & Clinical Practice, 2007; 33(1):38-44.-   Goto, et al. Computer-Synthesis of an Interference Color Chart of    Human Tear Lipid Layer, by a Colorimetric Approach. Invest.    Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., 2003; 44:4693-4697.-   Tiffany, J M. Refractive index of meibomian and other lipids.    Current Eye Research, 5 (11), 1986, 887-889.-   Stenzel, O. The Physics of Thin Film Optical Spectra. Editors: G.    Ertl, H. Luth and D. Mills. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2005:    71-98.-   Schott technical information document TIE-29 (2005).-   Korb, D R, et. al. Tear Film Lipid Layer Thickness as a Function of    Blinking. Cornea 13(4):354-359. 1994.-   Goto, E and Tseng, C G. Differentiation of Lipid Tear Deficiency Dry    Eye by Kinetic Analysis of Tear Interference Images. Arch    Ophthalmol. Vol. 121, February 2003, 173-180.

Various features and advantages of the invention are set forth in thefollowing claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for selecting an intraocular lens for apatient, the method comprising the steps of: determining a tear filmlipid layer thickness for the patient using a wave-length dependentoptical interferometer; determining a reflectivity value for the tearfilm lipid layer thickness at a first wavelength of light correspondingto ultraviolet, violet, or blue light; and identifying an intraocularlens for attenuating or blocking at least one wavelength of lightcorresponding to the ultraviolet, violet, or blue light.
 2. The methodof claim 1, wherein determining the tear film lipid layer thickness forthe patient comprises: measuring a tear film aqueous plus lipid layerrelative reflectance spectrum using the wavelength-dependent opticalinterferometer; converting the measured tear film aqueous plus lipidlayer relative reflectance spectrum to a calculated absolute reflectancespectrum; and comparing the calculated absolute reflectance spectrum toa theoretical absolute lipid reflectance spectrum to determine the tearfilm lipid layer thickness.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein thecalculated absolute reflectance spectrum is calculated based onwavelength-dependent refractive indices for air, lipid, and aqueousphases and wherein the wavelength-dependent refractive indices for lipidare based upon a Sellmeier equation form.
 4. The method of claim 2,wherein converting the measured tear film aqueous plus lipid layerrelative reflectance spectrum to the calculated absolute reflectancespectrum comprises multiplying the measured tear film aqueous plus lipidlayer relative reflectance spectrum at a plurality of wavelengths timesan absolute reference spectrum for reference material obtained at theplurality of wavelengths.
 5. The method of claim 2, wherein comparingthe calculated absolute reflectance spectrum to the theoretical absolutelipid reflectance spectrum comprises iteratively comparing thecalculated absolute reflectance spectrum to a plurality of theoreticalabsolute lipid reflectance spectra.
 6. The method of claim 1, whereinthe first wavelength of light corresponds to UVA light, and wherein themethod further comprises: determining a reflectivity value for the tearfilm lipid layer thickness at a second wavelength of light correspondingto UVB light, a third wavelength of light corresponding to violet light,and a fourth wavelength of light corresponding to blue light; addingtogether the reflectivity values for the first and second wavelengths oflight to produce a UV light sum; adding together the reflectivity valuesfor the third and fourth wavelengths of light to produce a visible lightsum; and comparing the UV light sum and the visible light sum toreference values to identify an intraocular lens for attenuating orblocking the at least one wavelength of light corresponding toultraviolet, violet, or blue light.